kwame nkrumah death

In 1964, Nkrumah proposed a constitutional amendment which would make the CPP the only legal party, with Nkrumah as president for life of both nation and party. [201] These were: Meanwhile, Ghana withdrew from colonial organizations including West Africa Airways Corporation, the West African Currency Board, the West African Cocoa Research Institute, and the West African Court of Appeal. [64] Nkrumah's clothing changed to the Chinese-supplied Mao suit. : Maker of Policy, or Tool? [41][42] In 1939, Nkrumah enrolled at Lincoln's seminary and at the Ivy League University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and in 1942, he was initiated into the Mu chapter of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity at Lincoln University. The State Enterprises Secretariat office was located in Flagstaff House and under the direct control of the president. In ten years time the GNA had 8045 km of domestic telegraph line, and maintained stations in Lagos, Nairobi, London, and New York City. B. Danquah. Date of death: 27 April, 1972. The Fight Over Nkrumah’s Remains: On April 27, 1972, Kwame Nkrumah, the deposed President of Ghana and a great Pan-Africanist died in Bucharest, Romania after six years in exile in Guinea far away from his birthplace of Nkroful at the age of 62. George P. Hagan, "Nkrumah's Leadership Style—An Assessment from a Cultural Perspective", in Arhin (1992), Grimm, Kevin E., Symbol of Modernity: Ghana, African Americans, and the Eisenhower Administration. While the tomb remains in Nkroful, his remains were transferred to a large national memorial tomb and park in Accra (shown above).Kwame Nkrumah was a visionary upon whom the hopes and dreams of the diaspora res… [91][92] Nkrumah was sentenced to a total of three years in prison, and he was incarcerated with common criminals in Accra's Fort James. Joseph R. A. Ayee, "Public Sector Manpower Development During the Nkrumah Period 1951–1966", in Arhin (1992). And, since the Romanians had sent the body to Conakry, the Guineans were in a strong position to dictate terms. Kwame Nkrumah was born on September 21, 1909 and died on April 27, 1972. [239][64], Nkrumah never returned to Ghana, but he continued to push for his vision of African unity. They were freed in April 1948. Much of his understanding and relationship to these men was created during his years in America as a student. [6], His administration was primarily socialist as well as nationalist. [77] There were about 63,000 ex-servicemen in the Gold Coast, many of whom had trouble obtaining employment and felt the colonial government was doing nothing to address their grievances. [94] The situation had become calmer once Nkrumah was arrested, and the CPP and the British worked together to prepare electoral rolls. [272][273], In the 2010 book The Other Wes Moore, Nkrumah, when living in the United States, is noted to have served as a mentor to the author's grandfather for several months upon the immigration of the author's family into the country. 7. On May 20, 1972, it was revealed that Touré had imposed even more conditions. [102], Prior to the CPP taking office, British officials had prepared a ten-year plan for development. Nkrumah became the secretary of WANS. Du Bois. [264] This rallied the nation in a nationalistic movement. Copyright © 1994 - 2021 GhanaWeb. "Modern History Sourcebook: Kwame Nkrumah: I Speak of Freedom, 1961", "Here are all the First Ladies of Ghana since independence", "Fathia : The Rock Of The Nkrumah Family", "Africa must re-examine, implement Nkrumah's ideas – Francis Nkrumah", "Sekou Nkrumah threatens to throw 'brother' in jail", Supplement, Kwame Nkrumah, President of Ghana, Amílcar Cabral and the Liberation of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde: International, Transnational, and Global Dimensions, https://sites.google.com/site/intercontinentalbookcentre/godfrey-mwakikagile-a-eurocentric-pan-africanist, Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum and Museum at Nkroful, Western Region, Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park & Museum, Accra, Timeline of events related to the overthrow of Kwame Nkrumah, The Kwame Nkrumah Lectures at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 2007, Kwame Nkrumah Information and Resource Site. [257] Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Acts passed in 1958 and 1959 gave the government more power to dis-stool chiefs directly, and proclaimed government of stool land – and revenues. Death, Birthday & Horoscope Kwame Nkrumah has been died on Apr 27, 1972 ( age 62). He withdrew after one term and the next year enrolled at University College, with the intent to write a philosophy dissertation on "Knowledge and Logical Positivism". On this day, as we commemorate the death of a founding father, we visit the last letter he wrote to then-president, Kwame Nkrumah, 12 days before his demise. On April 27, 1972, Dr Kwame Nkrumah, the first President of Ghana and a great Pan-Africanist died in Bucharest, Romania after six years in exile in Guinea far away from his birthplace of Nkroful at the age of 62. On 27th of April 1972, former President of Ghana at the same time a Pan-Africanist, Kwame Nkrumah died at the age of 62 in Romania after 6 years in exile in Guinea. Sékou Touré based Guinea’s right to keep Nkrumah’s body on Nkrumah’s having been granted asylum in Guinea and having been declared co-President of the Guinean Republic in 1966 when he was “betrayed” by the Ghanaian officers who overthrew him. Soon after, he left the country. [220] On 19 January 1961 the Third Infantry Battalion mutinied. A dissertation: the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University. [130], As a monument to the new nation, Nkrumah opened Black Star Square near Osu Castle in the coastal district of Osu, Accra. When his cook died mysteriously, he feared that someone would poison him, and began hoarding food in his room. Kwame was 62 years old at the time of death. He worked as a school teacher from 1930-1935 and taught at various schools in Gold Coast, which also included a … [224][225], In 1962 Kwame Nkrumah was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet Union. See, Members swore an oath of secrecy, pledging to "irrevocably obey" orders from the group, to "help a member brother of THE CIRCLE in all things and in all difficulties", to avoid the use of violence, to fast on the twenty-first day of the month, and finally, to "accept the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah". This page was last edited on 31 March 2021, at 12:07. [269] There appears to be another son, Onsy Anwar Nathan Kwame Nkrumah, born to an Egyptian mother[270][271] and an additional daughter, Elizabeth. It is the common people of Ghana who would be deprived of paying their final respects to their bereaved leader. Colonel Ignatius Acheampong, leader of the Ghana’s military junta which seized power from Prime minister Kofi Busia in January 1972. Place of birth: Nkroful, Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast). Last Name: Kwame. [22] He progressed through the ten-year elementary programme in eight years. [166][167] Cudjoe was eventually demoted with the consolidation of national women's groups, and marginalized within the Party structure. He lived in exile in Conakry, Guinea, as the guest of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, who made him honorary co-president of the country. [182][183], After visiting the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China in 1961, Nkrumah apparently became still more convinced of the need for state control of the economy. [4] He formed the Convention People's Party, which achieved rapid success through its unprecedented appeal to the common voter. Columnist. By about 1925 he was a student-teacher in the school, and had been baptized into the Catholic faith. Nkrumah hesitated, realizing the UGCC was controlled by conservative interests, but decided that the new post gave him huge political opportunities, and accepted. [123], As the fifth of March turned to the sixth, Nkrumah stood before tens of thousands of supporters and proclaimed, "Ghana will be free forever. [111] Beginning in October 1952, Nkrumah sought opinions from councils and from political parties on reform, and consulted widely across the country, including with opposition groups. [73][74], After brief stops in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, he arrived in the Gold Coast, and after a brief stay and reunion with his mother in Tarkwa, began work at the party's headquarters in Saltpond on 29 December 1947 where he worked as a general secretary. By Ismail Akwei for Face2FaceAfrica He is not very bright, but nevertheless do what you can for him because he's determined to throw Europeans out of Africa. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the colonial trade system by reducing dependence on foreign capital, technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent. Kwame Arhin, "The Search For 'Constitutional Chieftancy'", in Arhin (1992). [170][171], — Kwame Nkrumah at the Second Conference of African Journalists; Accra, November 11, 1963[171][172], Nkrumah consolidated state control over newspapers, establishing the Ghanaian Times in 1958 and then in 1962 obtaining its competitor, the Daily Graphic, from the Mirror Group of London. [107], Nkrumah's title was Leader of Government Business in a cabinet chaired by Arden-Clarke. To follow in these intellectual footsteps Nkrumah had intended to continue his education in London, but found himself involved in direct activism. [132], Nkrumah had only a short honeymoon before there was unrest among his people. The result the following year was a White Paper on a new constitution, seen as a final step before independence. Touré obstinately refused to assent to the pleas of Nkrumah’s family and the Ghanaian people, and to the demands of the Ghanaian government and press. Kwame Nkrumah, "African Socialism Revisited", 1967. [146] He aspired to create a united military force, the African High Command, which Ghana would substantially lead, and committed to this vision in Article 2 of the 1960 Republican Constitution:[210]"In the confident expectation of an early surrender of sovereignty to a union of African states and territories, the people now confer on Parliament the power to provide for the surrender of the whole or any part of the sovereignty of Ghana. [58] Nkrumah was determined to go to London, wanting to continue his education there now that the Second World War had ended. [62] The Congress elaborated a strategy for supplanting colonialism with African socialism. Nkrumah and Danquah addressed a meeting of the Ex-Service men's Union in Accra on 20 February 1948, which was in preparation for a march to present a petition to the governor. The British prepared for an election for the Gold Coast under their new constitution, and Nkrumah insisted that the CPP contest all seats. [131], Under Nkrumah's leadership, Ghana adopted some social democratic policies and practices. [116] The British were unwilling to leave unresolved the fundamental question as to how an independent Gold Coast should be governed, and in June 1956, the Colonial Secretary, Alan Lennox-Boyd announced that there would be another general election in the Gold Coast, and if a "reasonable majority" took the CPP's position, Britain would set a date for independence. The child grew up without a father. In 1961, the CPP passed the Apprentice Act, which created a general Apprenticeship Board along with committees for each industry. [157] All children were to learn arithmetic, as well as gain "a sound foundation for citizenship with permanent literacy in both English and the vernacular." [17] By the naming customs of the Akan people, he was given the name Kwame, the name given to males born on a Saturday. This was no ordinary time and these street speakers were no ordinary men  ...The streets of Harlem were open forums, presided over [by] master speakers like Arthur Reed and his protege Ira Kemp. c. Removal of the threat of arrest which hung over all of Nkrumah’s followers who had chosen to remain with him in exile Just as in the days of the Egyptians, so today God had ordained that certain among the African race should journey westwards to equip themselves with knowledge and experience for the day when they would be called upon to return to their motherland and to use the learning they had acquired to help improve the lot of their brethren. Du Bois, and George Padmore, and his relationships with them. [135] These repressive actions concerned the opposition parties, who came together to form the United Party under Kofi Abrefa Busia. We must ourselves take part in the pursuit of scientific and technological research as a means of providing the basis for our socialist society, Socialism without science is void.…. [117] The results of the July 1956 election were almost identical to those from four years before, and on 3 August the assembly voted for independence under the name Nkrumah had proposed in April, Ghana. The show's portrayal of the historical significance of the Queen's dance with Nkrumah has been refuted as exaggerated.[275]. Nkrumah had heard journalist and future Nigerian president Nnamdi Azikiwe speak while a student at Achimota; the two men met and Azikiwe's influence increased Nkrumah's interest in black nationalism. When that demonstration took place on 28 February, there was gunfire from the British, prompting the 1948 Accra riots, which spread throughout the country. [51], — Kwame Nkrumah, The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (1957)[55], Nkrumah read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. ", Gerits, Frank. [95], In the February 1951 legislative election, the first general election to be held under universal franchise in colonial Africa, the CPP was elected in a landslide. President Nkrumah is remembered for his great devotion and great role he played in the formation of the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U) which is today African Union (AU). d. An official welcome by the Ghanaian government of Nkrumah’s remains, with all the honors due a deceased chief of state. [114] They drew considerable support in the Northern Territory and among the chiefs in Ashanti, who petitioned the British queen, Elizabeth II, asking for a Royal Commission into what form of government the Gold Coast should have. [173] As he wrote in Africa Must Unite: "It is part of our revolutionary credo that within the competitive system of capitalism, the press cannot function in accordance with a strict regard for the sacredness of facts, and that the press, therefore, should not remain in private hands." [144] To this end, in 1958, his government passed "An Act to prohibit organizations using or engaging in racial or religious propaganda to the detriment of any other racial or religious community, or securing the election of persons on account of their racial or religious affiliations, or for other purposes in connection therewith. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. Date of Death: 27 April 1972. The cocoa bean farmers were upset because trees exhibiting swollen-shoot disease, but still capable of yielding a crop, were being destroyed by the colonial authorities. Political scientist Ralph Bunche, an African American, was there for the United Nations, while the Duchess of Kent represented Queen Elizabeth. [265] We must act now. [103] The colony was in good financial shape, with reserves from years of cocoa profit held in London, and Nkrumah was able to spend freely. Nkrumah stood, from prison, for a directly elected Accra seat. He was 62 years old. Nyanibah, who hailed from Nsuaem and belongs to the Agona family, was a fishmonger and petty trader when she married his father. [57] Federal Bureau of Investigation files on Nkrumah, kept from January to May 1945, identify him as a possible communist. Baptized a Roman Catholic, Nkrumah spent nine years at the Roman … Dr Kwame Nkrumah's Midnight Speech on the day of Ghana's independence – 6 March 1957. "'When the Bull Elephants Fight': Kwame Nkrumah, Non-Alignment, and Pan-Africanism as an Interventionist Ideology in the Global Cold War (1957–66).". [78] According to Nkrumah's biographer, David Birmingham, "West Africa's erstwhile "model colony" witnessed a riot and business premises were looted. Primary education became compulsory in 1962. This plan set up a six-year primary course, to be attended as close to universally as possible, with a range of possibilities to follow. [167], Laws passed in 1959 and 1960 designated special positions in parliament to be held by women. [110], Nkrumah's re-titling as prime minister had not given him additional power, and he sought constitutional reform that would lead to independence. The New York Times in 1972 wrote: "During his high‐flying days as the leader of Ghana in the 1950s and early 1960s, Kwame Nkrumah was a flamboyant spellbinder. [191][181], Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development, with help of longtime friend and Minister of Finance, Komla Agbeli Gbedema, led to the Volta River Project: the construction of a hydroelectric power plant, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. This square would be used for national symbolism and mass patriotic rallies. According to Trend Celeb Now, Kwame Nkrumah's estimated Net Worth, Salary, Income, Cars, Lifestyles & much more details has been updated below. [30][31], After obtaining his teacher's certificate from the Prince of Wales' College at Achimota in 1930,[20] Nkrumah was given a teaching post at the Roman Catholic primary school in Elmina in 1931,[20] and after a year there, was made headmaster of the school at Axim. [55] CPP operatives drove red-white-and-green vans across the country, playing music and rallying public support for the party and especially for Nkrumah. Press reports shortly after Kwame Nkrumah’s death announced that Toure had attached four conditions to the return of the ex-President’s body to Ghana: Nkrumah was released from prison on 12 February, receiving a rapturous reception from his followers. While the tomb remains in Nkroful, his remains were transferred to a large national memorial tomb and park in Accra, Ghana. [171], He refused advertising in all media, beginning with the Evening News of 1948. In the ending words of this speech Nkrumah calls his people to action by saying "This is our chance. "[160], In 1964, Nkrumah brought forth the Seven Year Development Plan for National Reconstruction and Development, which identified education as a key source of development and called for the expansion of secondary technical schools. Another strike at tribalism fell in Ashanti, where Nkrumah and the CPP got most local chiefs who were not party supporters destooled. [55][90] Party symbols and colors (red, white, and green) appeared on clothing, flags, vehicles, and houses. The sole evidence against the alleged plotters was that they rode in cars well behind Nkrumah's car. [217], The Ghanaian Navy received two inshore minesweepers with 40- and 20-millimeter guns, the Afadzato and the Yogaga, from Britain in December 1959. The government deployed troops to Togo-land to quell unrest following a disputed plebiscite on membership in the new country. Ghana remained a part of the British-led Commonwealth of Nations. He traveled by way of Britain, where he learned, to his outrage, of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, one of the few independent African nations. » This accentuated regional differences and jealousy. [196][197], In 1954 the world price of cocoa rose from £150 to £450 per ton. During this speech he talked about how "Africa could become one of the greatest forces for good in the world". [46] He spent many evenings listening to and arguing with street orators, and according to Clarke, Kwame Nkrumah in his years in America stated;[47], These evenings were a vital part of Kwame Nkrumah's American education. [59] James, in a 1945 letter introducing Nkrumah to Trinidad-born George Padmore in London, wrote: "This young man is coming to you. [129] Philip Gbeho was commissioned to compose the new national anthem, "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana". [271] Onsy's claim to be Nkrumah's son is disputed by Nkrumah's other children. Cudjoe also formed the Ghana Women's League, which advanced the Party's agenda on nutrition, raising children, and wearing clothing. He had never served in government, and needed to learn that art. [citation needed], Kwame Nkrumah married Fathia Ritzk, an Egyptian Coptic bank worker and former teacher, on the evening of her arrival in Ghana: New Year's Eve, 1957–1958. The UGCC failed to set up a nationwide structure, and proved unable to take advantage of the fact that many of its opponents were in prison. Eboe Hutchful, "The Development of the Army Officer Corps in Ghana, 1956–1955". From a dreary exile in Guine… When his cook died mysteriously, he feared that someone would poison him, and began hoarding food in his room. Hence, socialism. We salute you because you are a true and living representation of our hopes and ideals, of the determination we have to be accepted fully as equal beings, of the pride we have held and nurtured in our African origin, of the freedom of which we know we are capable, of the freedom in which we believe, of the dignity imperative to our stature as men. Nkrumah did not learn of the coup until he arrived in China. [100], Nkrumah faced several challenges as he assumed office. [b][24] Nkrumah's mother sent him to the elementary school run by a Catholic mission at Half Assini, where he proved an adept student. The strike quickly led to violence, and Nkrumah and other CPP leaders were arrested on 22 January, and the Evening News was banned. We cannot afford to sit still and be mere passive onlookers. The Daily Times of Lagos editorialized: [228][229], Nkrumah alluded to American involvement in the coup in his 1969 memoir Dark Days in Ghana, he may have based this conclusion on documents shown to him by the KGB. [91] When the defendants were acquitted, Nkrumah sacked the chief judge of the state security court, then got the CPP-dominated parliament to pass a law allowing a new trial. We need also to reach out to the mass of the people who have not had the opportunities of formal education. [8] Nkrumah was deposed in 1966 by the National Liberation Council which under the supervision of international financial institutions privatized many of the country's state corporations. [120] On 21 February 1957, the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, announced that Ghana would be a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations with effect from 6 March. The new document provided for an assembly of 104 members, all directly elected, with an all-African cabinet responsible for the internal governing of the colony. This plan called for the development of manufacturing: 600 factories producing 100 varieties of product. [207][166], Nkrumah was a leading figure in the short-lived Casablanca Group of African leaders, which sought to achieve pan-African unity and harmony through deep political, economic, and military integration of the continent in the early 1960s prior to the establishment of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Gbedemah worked to set up a nationwide campaign organization, using vans with loudspeakers to blare the party's message. [32] Initially skeptical of Nkrumah's socialist policies, Britain's MI5 had compiled large amounts of intelligence on Nkrumah through several sources, including tapping phones and mail interception under the code name of SWIFT. [159] Nkrumah remarked that "trainees should be made to realize the party's ideology is religion, and should be practiced faithfully and fervently. Kaiser Aluminum agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced using the power generated. [158], Nkrumah promoted pan-African culture, calling for international libraries and cooperative efforts to study history and culture. [179], Nkrumah attempted to rapidly industrialize Ghana's economy. [22] In addition, Ngolomah was respected for his wise counsel by those who sought his advice on traditional issues and domestic affairs. When in 1958 the Harlem Lawyers Association had an event in Nkrumah's honour, diplomat Ralph Bunche told him: We salute you, Kwame Nkrumah, not only because you are Prime Minister of Ghana, although this is cause enough. Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah arrived in Conakry, Guinea after being invited by Sékou Touré just after the Military Coup that unconstitutionally ousted his Government from Power. As events were to show, Touré determined to squeeze every possible propaganda advantage from Nkrumah’s demise. This led to a break between him and Lincoln, though after he rose to prominence in the Gold Coast, he returned in 1951 to accept an honorary degree. [164] He oversaw the opening of the Ghana Museum on 5 March 1957; the Arts Council of Ghana, a wing of the Ministry of Education and Culture, in 1958; the Research Library on African Affairs in June 1961; and the Ghana Film Corporation in 1964. [223], In 1961, Nkrumah went on tour through Eastern Europe, proclaiming solidarity with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. In 1933, he was appointed a teacher at the Catholic seminary at Amissano. 27 May 2020, CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (. [122] United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent congratulations and his vice president, Richard Nixon, to represent the U.S. at the event. Hence, also, scientific socialism. [13][75] Nkrumah quickly submitted plans for branches of the UGCC to be established colony-wide, and for strikes if necessary to gain political ends. The rail system was modernized and expanded. [64] Among those who attended the congress was the venerable W. E. B. Dubois along with some who later took leading roles in leading their nations to independence, including Hastings Banda of Nyasaland (which became Malawi), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Obafemi Awolowo of Nigeria. [214] The most senior officers in this force were British, and, although training of African officers began in 1947, only 28 of 212 officers in December 1956 were indigenous Africans. In 1964, all students entering college in Ghana were required to attend a two-week "ideological orientation" at the institute. Despite retirement from public office, he felt that he was still threatened by Western intelligence agencies. Postwar inflation had caused public anger at high prices, leading to a boycott of the small stores run by Arabs which began in January 1948. During his years as a student in the United States, though, he was known as Francis Nwia Kofi Nkrumah, Kofi being the name given to males born on Friday. On 20 February 1958, he told the National Assembly: "It is my strong belief that the Volta River Project provides the quickest and most certain method of leading us towards economic independence." [49] Some members felt that the group should aspire for each colony to gain independence on its own; Nkrumah urged a Pan-African strategy. It should reverse the decision and thus fulfill and honor a dead man’s wishes. [177][171], Radio programs, designed in part to reach non-reading members of the public, were a major focus of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation. [65][66], The congress sought to establish ongoing African activism in Britain in conjunction with the West African National Secretariat (WANS) to work towards the decolonization of Africa. Hersh, Seymour (9 May 1978), "CIA Said to Have Aided Plotters Who Overthrew Nkrumah in Ghana". "[139] Nkrumah intended to bypass the British-trained judiciary, which he saw as opposing his plans when they subjected them to constitutional scrutiny. [105] From 1951 to 1956, the number of pupils being educated at the colony's schools rose from 200,000 to 500,000. With more than 600 reporters in attendance, Ghanaian independence became one of the most internationally reported news events in modern African history. Offers of assistance poured in from across the world. the First Conference of Independent States, in April 1958; the All-African Trade Union Federation, meeting in November 1959, to coordinate the African labour movement; the Positive Action and Security in Africa conference, in April 1960, discussing Algeria, South Africa, and French. Facing realities is more important. Many students and teachers had demonstrated for their release, and been suspended; Nkrumah, using his own funds, began the Ghana National College. Madam Elizabeth Nyaniba, aged mother of the deceased President, made an impassioned plea to President Sékou Touré to allow the body to be returned to Ghana: “I want to touch the body of my son before he is buried, or I die.” She also indicated that she would like her son’s body embalmed and kept permanently on public display the way Lenin’s body is preserved. Leader of Government Business and Prime Minister, Political developments and presidential election, Increased power of the Convention People's Party, Nyanibah survived her son, watching over him throughout his life. Years old at the institute of African officers in top leadership roles well-funded Ghana news to... In action attracted these intellectuals to his Ghanaian projects towards our all-African socialist reconstruction Britain 's other children [ ]... 'S group called women of the army officer Corps in Ghana, 1951–1965 '', in the creation a. See: ``, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 ( being educated at Catholic... 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